Greenland?

Weekend Update

When Trump says that he’s going to Make American Great Again, we know that he believes that American greatness peaked in the 1890s – you know, the years of the robber barons, unregulated industry, The Jungle, How the Other Half Lives, and all that wonderful stuff. Women were not allowed to vote, and African Americans faced enormous odds and extreme peril if they tried to exercise the franchise that was legally theirs. Native Americans (in one of the great ironies of American history) wouldn’t be defined as citizens until 1924, and Chinese immigrants (as well as native-born Americans of Chinese descent) were denied citizenship rights.

The 1890s were also the years when America became an imperial power, joining the empires of the world (Britain, Germany, Spain, France, Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, Russia, and Japan) in an effort to carve up the globe – particularly the global south – in a competition for power and prestige. Over the previous centuries, the United States had moved from a colonial outpost of the British Empire to an incomplete republic (with a slaveholding oligarchy that held inordinate governing power) to a more complete republic – in Lincoln’s words, a “more perfect Union.” In the 1890s, the nation’s leaders wanted to play with the big boys. They started by seizing land outside of the continental boundaries of North America.

This was not a total departure from previous policies. After the United States gained independence in the 1780s, it embraced the doctrine of westward expansion. First, the Northwest Territory and Southwest Territory (virtually all of the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River) were organized into individual territories and then into states as population growth merited it. In 1803, the United States purchased the vast swath of land known as the Louisiana Territory. In 1844, the United States annexed Texas from Mexico. When Mexico objected, the United States launched a war that led to the acquisition of virtually all of the American Southwest by 1848. At the same time, the uncertain status of the Oregon Territory was resolved in favor of the United States. In 1867, Secretary of State William Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia, confirming the continental spread of the United States.

Westward expansion had been the driving force behind American economic development. The fertile land and mineral deposits in the west had provided an almost unlimited enticement for movement and economic development. But what would drive the country now that the continent was “filled?” Expansion beyond the continental United States was the answer, and the explosion of communications and transportation technology at the end of the 19^th century provided the mechanism.

Let’s review how the United States became an empire in the 1890s:

1. The United States annexed Hawaii in 1898 after a series of political and economic maneuvers by American settlers. In 1893, American and European sugar planters, backed by the U.S. military, overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They established a provisional government, which sought annexation by the U.S. However, President Grover Cleveland opposed the move, delaying formal annexation. In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, President William McKinley supported annexation for strategic military reasons. Congress approved the Newlands Resolution, and Hawaii became a U.S. territory. It later became a state in 1959.

2. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and Guam from Spain after winning the Spanish-American War (1898). The Treaty of Paris (1898) ended the war and transferred control of these territories to the U.S. Puerto Rico became an unincorporated U.S. territory with limited self-government over time, while Guam became a key naval base in the Pacific. Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917 under the Jones-Shafroth Act, and today, Puerto Rico remains a U.S. territory. Guam, under U.S. military administration, played a critical role in American defense strategy in the Pacific during World War II and subsequent military actions in that part of the world.

3. The Philippines was ceded to the U.S. after Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War through the Treaty of Paris (1898). However, Filipino nationalists, who had been fighting for independence from Spain, opposed U.S. control, leading to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). The U.S. used brutal tactics to suppress resistance, and the Philippines remained under American rule, with increasing self-governance. We should recall that William Howard Taft (who served as the first Governor General of the Philippines before he was elected President in 1908) referred to Filipinos as our “little brown brothers” who needed protection offered by a benevolent United States. In 1935, it became a U.S. commonwealth, and after World War II, the U.S. granted full independence on July 4, 1946, under the Tydings-McDuffie Act.

4. The United States acquired American Samoa through negotiations with Germany and Britain. In 1899, the three powers signed the Tripartite Convention, dividing Samoa into two parts: Germany took Western Samoa, while the U.S. took the eastern islands, now American Samoa. This was formalized in 1900 when local chiefs ceded their lands to the U.S. in exchange for protection. Unlike other U.S. territories, American Samoans are U.S. nationals rather than citizens, meaning they can live and work in the U.S. but do not automatically have full citizenship rights.

5. The United States purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917 for $25 million through the Treaty of the Danish West Indies. The deal was motivated by World War I concerns that Germany might seize the islands if Denmark was occupied. The U.S. took control to prevent German expansion in the Caribbean and to protect shipping routes. The islands, consisting of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, remain a U.S. territory today, with residents granted U.S. citizenship in 1927, though they do not have full voting representation in Congress.

   1. Interesting that the US purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark.

Puerto Rico, Guam, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands elect non-voting delegates to the United States Congress. These delegates can participate in debates and serve on committees but cannot vote on final legislation in the House of Representatives. Washington, DC, also has a non-voting delegate in the House of Representatives.

Since the Trump regime was installed in January (I’m calling it a regime rather than an administration because it is fundamentally a different form of government than what existed before January), it has intensified its efforts to acquire Greenland, citing strategic and national security interests. President Trump has publicly stated that he is considering all options, including military intervention, to facilitate a U.S. takeover of the territory.

Last week, Vice President JD Vance visited Greenland, where he criticized Denmark for inadequate investment in the island's development and security. His remarks drew sharp responses from Danish officials, including Foreign Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen, who condemned Vance's tone as inappropriate for communication between close allies.

An actual photo of JD’s visit to Greenland

In response to these developments, Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen plans to visit Greenland this week to reinforce ties and address the geopolitical tensions arising from the U.S. administration's annexation ambitions.

Greenlandic leaders and the populace have expressed strong opposition to becoming part of the United States. A significant majority of Greenlanders oppose U.S. annexation, and local political leaders have formed a coalition government to assert their sovereignty and resist external pressure.

It seems to have escaped the notice of the Trump regime that the last century has been dominated by decolonialism, not imperialism.

• The end of the Spanish empire began early and progressed throughout the 19^th century. Inspired by the American and French revolutions, leaders like Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led successful revolts against Spanish rule. By 1830, Spain had lost nearly all of Latin American except for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In the 1890s, Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Spain lost Spanish Morroco in 1956, Equitorial Guinea in 1968, and Western Sahara in 1975 after the death of Francisco Franco.

• Britain granted independence to India and Pakistan in 1947, setting a precedent for further decolonization. Most British colonies in Africa gained independence in the next couple of decades. Britain’s 1997 handover of Hong Kong marked the near-complete end of its empire.

• France attempted to hold onto its empire through brutal wars in Algeria (1954-1962) and Vietnam (1946-1954) but ultimately lost.

• Portugal held onto its colonies until the 190s, with Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau gaining independence after prolonged wars.

• Belgium’s rushed withdrawal from the Congo in 1960 left chaos in its wake.

• The Netherlands lost Indonesia in 1949.

Self-determination was the go-to philosophy by the end of the 20^th century. The liberation of Eastern Europe from Soviet control was the prime example of this, as the newly independent Soviet Republics joined the United Nations, European Union, and NATO. Nations in the global south formed regional organizations focused on trade, economic development, and national security.

In Africa, these organizations include

• the African Union (2001; successor to the 1963 Organization of African Unity),

• Economic Community of West African States (1975)

• South African Development Community (1980),

• East African Community (1967; 2000),

• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (1994), and

• the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (1986).

In Latin America and the Caribbean, these organizations include

• Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (2011)

• Mercosur (Southern Common Market (1991)

• Pacific Alliance (2011)

• Organization of American States (OAS) (1948)

• CARICOM (Caribbean Community and Common Market) (1973)

In Asia, these organizations include

• Association of Southeast Asian Naations (ASEAN) (1967).

• South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) (1985)

• Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) (2001)

• Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (1981)

• Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) (1989)

These organizations play a key role in shaping regional politics, trade, and security. But they were initially formed to counter the influence of the world’s superpowers – especially the United States, the Soviet Union, and the former colonial powers. For many African and Asian nations, regional organizations were crucial in the fight against colonial rule. In both Africa and Asia, independence movements operated hand-in-glove with regional organizations.

This was not long ago in a land far away. This was within the living memory of millions of people living in the parts of the world that had been exploited by colonialism. The words and actions of the Trump administration take the world back to a place of global conflict rather than peaceful evolution to a more prosperous world for everyone.

We don’t want to return to that world. We should not forget that the Age of Imperialism ended with the clash of empires in World War I and the mop-up operation of World War II.