Virtually all of the major changes in the United States between 1860 and 1890 are tied into the overarching story of the urbanization of America. These charts show not only a steady movement to the cities but also the growth of other economic sectors while the agricultural sector is shrinking.
This is a complicated topic. To understand it fully, you have to review a number of topics:
1. Developments that encourage urbanization
a. the economic factors driving people to urban centers
b. the impact of technological advancements on urban growth
c. the role of new transportation and communications technologies on urbanization
2. The urban challenges and responses
a. Housing and living conditions
b. Sanitation and other public health concerns
c. Reform movements and urban planning
3. Evolution of city governance
a. The rise of political machines
b. Political bosses
c. Efforts to address corruption and reform city governance
4. Changing cityscapes
a. New schools of urban architecture
b. The vertical city – the rise of skyscrapers.
5. Social movements and activism
a. The impact of the labor movement on urban working conditions
b. The push for women’s suffrage and its connection to urbanization
c. Cities as hubs for social and political activism
This is, admittedly, a lot to chew on. I’m not going to have time to look at all of these topics during my upcoming Osher class, so I’m beginning to narrow things down. This essay reflects what I’m thinking about now, as I work to narrow the scope of a course that has kind of exploded beyond anything that is manageable.
I’ll need to talk a little about what led to this demographic shift. Like almost everything else in this time period, it was driven by rapid technological change. As new technologies made farming more efficient (meaning that fewer farm workers were needed), other new technologies led to the establishment and growth of industrial production in the cities. People moved to take advantage of economic opportunities that were disappearing in the rural parts of the country.
Immigration also exploded during this period; the push factors in the immigrants’ countries of origin were different, but the pull of economic prosperity in America’s cities was the same as for the people who lived in rural America.
Changes in transportation technology – particularly the growth of the railroad system – increased the ability of people to make these moves. Changes in communication technology – particularly the telegraph and improved printing processes – made it more possible for people to identify the opportunities that awaited them in the cities and to communicate with other people who had already made the move. Both of these sets of improvements also meant that moving to a city didn’t mean cutting yourself off from your home and family forever; you could go back to visit and you could write regularly.
Another part of this story has to focus on the problems cities faced as their populations swelled beyond the ability of the urban infrastructure to handle all of the new arrivals.
What were some of the growing problems in the cities? Laborers, cut off from the traditional support of their families in their hometowns, had to figure out how to live in an entirely new situation. It was not usually a smooth transition.
This chart outlines the problems that urban dwellers faced. It’s as good a start as any.
The emerging power of industrial cities led to the famed political machines, like the Tweed Ring that ran Tammany Hall in New York City. The corruption and vice that grew while these machines were in charge is an important part of the story of this era. Enormous amounts of money were being expended to build skyscrapers and subways, and seemingly everyone wanted a piece of the action.
As the former agricultural workers realized that their wages were too low and conditions too dangerous in the factories, a class consciousness emerged that led to union organization – and union busting – as the power of labor rose to challenge the power of the bosses. At the same time, worsening conditions on the farms led farmers to join with urban laborers (to some extent – it’s a complex story) to push against the industrialists to get what they considered a fair share of the pie. The miners joined in this general labor uprising — their working conditions were worse than the other sectors. This led to the emergence of two major political party movements – the Populists and Progressives – that forced a shift in the voter coalitions that identified with each of the major parties.
In reaction to the economic, social, and political problems of this era, we see a variety of reform movements. These included the YMCA, the Salvation Army, the Temperance Movement, and Settlement Houses intended to help the urban poor. The Progressive movement – ultimately folded into the Democratic Party by the 1930s – politicized support for these demands.
Another change was that the percentage of children attending school skyrocketed during this time.
The emerging lifestyle would be recognizable to someone who grew up in the middle of the 20th century – like me. In the 1890s, Dad went to work every day (very few married women held full-time jobs) and the kids went to school. The school calendar no longer had to be adjusted to the demands of the busy times on the farm – spring planting, summer tending, or fall harvesting (although the summer vacation based on this pattern persists).
One result of all of these changes was that many people actually had leisure time. The six-day workweek was the norm well into the 20th century, but even that schedule created something called “the weekend” – at least one day per week when Dad didn’t have to go to work and the kids didn’t have to go to school. This created the possibility of leisure time – something unheard of in rural America, where farm chores had to be done every day.
Apparently, cows can’t hold it in, my friends.
One result was that the cities began to develop leisure activities – including organized sports, social clubs, public lectures, amusements, and city parks. The planning for New York City’s Central Park began in 1857, and the park was completed in 1876. By 1884, New Yorkers who were tired of Central Park could hop on a train and ride the roller coaster (opened in 1885), visit a brothel shaped like an elephant, or lose their hard-earned money at any of three racetracks.
In the same era, the National Park system began to be developed throughout the country. Yellowstone came first, in 1872, followed by 11 more parks in the west before Acadia, in Maine, was opened in 1919.
The eyes of Americans were being opened to the possibilities and opportunities that awaited them in the cities. They could never have imagined what was coming next as they moved into the 20th century. My grandmother Orpha Lydia Ellefritz Arnold, born in 1897, lived to see the Wright brothers fly their plane at Kitty Hawk, two world wars, the Great Depression, two regional wars (Korea and Vietnam), the Civil Rights movement, and the moon landing before dying in 1986 at the age of 89. What a life she lived!
Sure hope I win this lottery.
It's interesting to me how many of the people I know think that they earned the life they live today without giving credit to what our ancestors went through to make our middle class possible.